The methods of Chinese character formation mainly include the following, which together constitute the rich and diverse writing system of Chinese characters:

1. Pictographic Method

• Definition: Directly expressing the shape and characteristics of objects through graphics.
• Characteristics: Uses lines to depict the shape of physical objects, representing the earliest form of Chinese characters.
• Examples: The character “人” (rén) resembles the side profile of a person, “木” (mù) resembles the shape of a tree, “月” (yuè) resembles the shape of a crescent moon, and “龟” (guī) resembles the side profile of a turtle.

2. Indicative Method

• Definition: Using fingers or other body parts to represent things or actions, or adding symbolic signs to pictographs to indicate things without specific images.
• Characteristics: Uses pure symbols or pictographs with additional symbols to convey meaning.
• Examples: The character “上” (shàng) indicates an upward movement, “本” (běn) adds a symbol “一” below the pictograph “木” to represent the root of a tree, meaning “fundamental.” Other examples include “下, 末, 寸, 刃, 中, 一, 二.”

3. Associative Compound Method

• Definition: Combining two or more characters to create a new meaning.
• Characteristics: Forms new characters by combining existing pictographs or indicatives.
• Examples: The character “从” (cóng) combines two “人” characters to represent one person following another, meaning “to follow.” Other examples include “北, 明, 林, 森, 看, 休.”

4. Phonetic-Semantic Compound Method

• Definition: Combining the form and sound components of a character to express its meaning.
• Characteristics: Consists of a semantic radical (indicating meaning) and a phonetic radical (indicating pronunciation).
• Examples: The characters “江” (jiāng) and “河” (hé) use the three-dot water radical as the semantic radical, indicating water-related meanings, while “工” and “可” serve as phonetic radicals indicating pronunciation. Phonetic-semantic compounds are the dominant type of Chinese characters.

5. Transitive Method (Primarily a Character Usage Method)

• Definition: Synonymous characters derived from the same root can mutually annotate each other.
• Characteristics: Primarily used for explaining the meanings of characters rather than directly creating new ones.
• Example: “老, 考也” and “考, 老也” illustrate how “老” and “考” are interchangeable in certain contexts through transitive explanation.

6. Phonetic Loan Method (Primarily a Character Usage Method)

• Definition: Borrowing existing homophones to represent new meanings.
• Characteristics: Does not create new characters but repurposes existing ones to express new concepts.
• Example: The character “管” (guǎn) was originally a phonetic-semantic compound meaning bamboo tube but was later borrowed homophonously to mean “to manage.”

In summary, the primary methods of Chinese character formation are pictographic, indicative, associative compound, and phonetic-semantic compound. Transitive and phonetic loan are more often considered character usage methods rather than direct methods of character formation. These methods collectively contribute to the unique and expressive writing system of Chinese characters.